Carry 2–3 L of water per person daily; increase to 0.5–1.0 L per hour during heavy exertion or hot conditions and plan resupply points every 8–12 km. Use water treatment: mechanical filter (0.1–0.4 µm), chlorine dioxide tablets, or a UV purifier; when source reliability is unknown, carry two independent methods.
Adopt a three-layer clothing system: moisture-wicking base (merino or synthetic), insulating mid-layer (100–300 g fleece or 200–400 g lightweight down), and a breathable waterproof shell with a hydrostatic head ≥10,000 mm and breathability ~10,000 g/m²/24h. Pack a down jacket (600–800 fill, ~300–500 g) and thin warm hat; extra insulation weight of 300–500 g covers most cold-night scenarios.
Choose ankle-support boots with a stiff sole and pronounced heel; break them in over at least 20–40 hours of walking before the outing. Carry two pairs of socks (one in use, one dry) made of wool or synthetic; thin liners reduce blister risk. Trekking poles cut knee load on descents by ≈20–30% and improve balance on loose slopes.
Above ~3,000 m, keep overnight elevation gain to ~300–500 m and schedule a rest day every 600–900 m of ascent. Expect mild altitude effects: headache, sleep disruption, reduced appetite; severe signs – persistent vomiting, severe headache, confusion, ataxia – require immediate descent of 500–1,000 m and urgent medical care.
Carry map and compass and practice basic navigation; use GPS with offline maps and a 10,000 mAh power bank as backup. Notify a trusted contact of planned route and a check-in time. Begin outings before 07:00 local time and aim to be below exposed ridgelines by 12:00–14:00 to lower lightning exposure. Pack a compact first-aid kit, blister supplies, repair tape and an emergency bivy or space blanket (<250 g).
Choosing a Daypack and Packing Checklist for 1–3 Day Trips
Pick a pack by volume: 20–30 L for single-day outings; 30–45 L for 1–2 nights with compact shelter and sleep system; 45–60 L for 2–3 nights or bulkier cold‑weather gear. Keep worn pack weight under ~25% of body mass and load the hip belt to carry about 70% of that weight.
Fit and features to prioritize
Measure torso length (c7 to iliac crest) and choose an adjustable suspension matching that length. Look for a padded, contoured hip belt with at least 8–10 cm of overlap for secure load transfer. Prefer internal-frame packs with load lifters and a sternum strap to stabilize the load. Must-haves: hip-belt pockets, hydration sleeve or external bottle pockets, ventilated back panel, side compression straps, lid or front-access panel, and a removable rain cover or water-resistant face fabric. For multi-day use, confirm attachment points for trekking poles and an external daisy chain for accessories.
Material and weight: aim for a durable fabric (e.g., 400–900D nylon) for frequent use; ultralight fabrics acceptable if you reduce other kit weight. Test fit with 5–10 kg first; then repeat with projected loaded weight.
Packing checklist (items and quantity guidance – adjust by season and route)
Core essentials (carry every time): map + compass, headlamp with spare batteries, water container(s) (baseline 1–2 L capacity), basic first-aid kit, multi-tool, waterproof matches/lighter, whistle, rain shell, sunscreen, sunglasses, hat.
1-day checklist: lightweight daypack (20–30 L); 1–2 L water; snacks + lunch (~1,000–1,800 kcal total); rain jacket; lightweight insulating layer (fleece or light down); first-aid; navigation; phone + power bank (small).
1–2 night checklist: 30–45 L pack; shelter (ultralight tarp or 1–2 person tent ~0.8–1.8 kg); sleeping bag or quilt (temperature rating appropriate to forecast, typical summer 0–5 °C bags 600–1,200 g); sleeping pad (insulated air or foam, 200–600 g); stove + pot + fuel (canister or alcohol); meals (freeze-dried or ready-to-eat, ~1,800–3,000 kcal/day); water filter or purification tablets; extra socks and sleep layer.
3-night checklist (or colder conditions): 45–60 L pack; slightly heavier shelter and larger sleep system if needed; additional fuel and food; repair kit (patches, duct tape), spare laces; larger power bank; consider a second insulating layer.
Packing method: place heavy items close to the back and centered above the hip belt; sleeping system low and toward the rear; frequently used items (rain shell, snacks, map, headlamp, water) in top or hip pockets; keep electronics in waterproof pouch. Use stuff sacks or pack liners to separate wet/dirty items. Balance left/right side weight and compress side straps after loading.
Water and food planning: carry at least 1–2 L baseline; increase to 3+ L in hot/dry terrain or long waterless sections. Plan 1,800–3,000 kcal per person per day depending on exertion; pack high-energy, compact foods (nuts, bars, dehydrated meals).
Reference: REI expert advice on selecting a daypack – https://www.rei.com/learn/expert-advice/daypack.html
Layering Clothing: Rapid Weather Changes and Temperature Management
Use a three-layer system: moisture-wicking base, insulating midlayer, waterproof/breathable shell.
Base layer – choose synthetic polyester (140–220 g/m²) or merino wool (150–260 g/m²). Lightweight (140–160 g/m²) suits high-intensity activity above ~5–15°C; midweight (180–220 g/m²) suits moderate activity near -5–10°C; heavyweight merino (≥260 g/m²) provides extra thermal buffer during long rest periods at subzero temps. Avoid cotton; prioritize next-to-skin fabrics with rapid moisture transfer and quick drying times (target <6 hours to fully dry when wrung out).
Midlayer and insulation
Fleece & softshell: fleece weight 100–300 g/m² – 100–180 g/m² for aerobic effort, 200–300 g/m² when long exposures or low movement expected. Insulated jacket: down fill power 600–900 FP; match fill weight to conditions – 100–150 g down for cool conditions (~0 to -10°C when active), 200–350 g down for cold-rest scenarios (<-10°C). Synthetic insulation (e.g., PrimaLoft) performs better when wet; typical fill weights 60–200 g achieve warmth comparable to down with slightly higher bulk and weight.
Shell specifications and ventilation
Shell criteria: hydrostatic head 10,000–20,000 mm (10k adequate in light rain, 20k for sustained heavy precipitation). Breathability rating >10,000 g/m²/24h recommended when planning high exertion. Look for taped seams, helmet-compatible hood, long front zipper and pit zips for rapid vapor evacuation, articulated cut to avoid binding during movement. Durable water repellent (DWR) at sleeves and shoulders reduces wetting and maintains insulation efficiency.
Layer management: unzip to dump heat before sweating peaks; remove an insulating layer at first heavy sweat to prevent damp insulation; reapply insulation when sweating stops. Keep a dry spare set of insulating layers sealed in a waterproof sack; store shell in an external pocket for immediate access during thunderstorms or wind shifts. Always test layering while stationary for 10–15 minutes to confirm warmth before descent into exposed terrain.
| Layer | Fabric examples | Typical mass | Temperature guidance | Key features |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Base | Merino wool, polyester | 140–260 g/m² | >5°C (light); 0–5°C (midweight); <0°C (heavy) | Moisture-wicking, low odor, quick dry |
| Mid | Fleece, light insulated jackets | 100–300 g/m² (fleece) / 60–200 g fill (synthetic) | Active use: -5–10°C; Resting use: -10°C and below | Loft retention, breathability, mobility |
| Insulating jacket | Down 600–900 FP, synthetic fill | Fill weight 100–350 g | 150 g down ≈ 0 to -10°C; 250 g down ≈ -10 to -25°C (activity-dependent) | Compressible, high warmth-to-weight ratio |
| Shell | 3-layer laminated membrane | 200–500 g (jacket) | Rain and wind protection across all temps | Waterproof rating 10k–20k, pit zips, DWR |
Packing and weight targets: day outings with variable conditions aim at 600–1,200 g total clothing weight (base, mid, light down, shell). Cold multi-day plans typically reach 1,200–2,000 g. Use a small compressible dry sack for insulation pieces and a separate waterproof bag for the shell and spare base layer to prevent moisture transfer.
Planning Routes: Estimating Distance, Elevation Gain, and Daily Timetables
Apply Naismith’s rule: allow 1 hour per 5 km horizontal plus 1 hour per 600 m ascent; modify using the concrete multipliers below.
- Base speeds: good trail 5 km·h⁻¹; rough/boulder/vegetation 3–4 km·h⁻¹.
- Ascent rule: 600 m climb = 1 hour; equivalently 100 m climb ≈ 10 minutes.
- Descent: subtract 10–20% of ascent time on stable slopes; add equal time to ascent on steep, loose, technical downhills.
- Pack weight: add +10% moving time with 5–10 kg load; +20–30% with 15–20 kg load.
- Altitude effect: above 2,500 m add +10% per 1,000 m gain if not acclimatized; adjust downward with prior acclimatization.
- Weather/snow: multiply moving time by 1.3–1.6 in deep snow, heavy rain, or high winds.
- Navigation/route-finding: add 15–60 minutes per complex section with poor visibility or indistinct tracks.
Worked calculation (concrete): route = 18 km horizontal + 1,200 m ascent.
- Horizontal time: 18 ÷ 5 = 3.6 h.
- Ascent time: 1,200 ÷ 600 = 2.0 h.
- Base moving time = 5.6 h.
- Modifier: rough trail ×1.2 → 6.72 h; heavy pack +20% → 8.06 h.
- Breaks: add 90 min (short breaks every 60–90 min plus 30–60 min lunch) → 9.56 h → round up to 10 h.
- Buffer: add 10–20% or at least 60 min → final plan ≈ 11–12 h.
Daily timetable template (use exact calculations for each leg):
- Set a start time (example 07:00).
- Divide route into legs with distance and ascent for each leg.
- Compute moving time per leg: (distance ÷ horizontal speed) + (ascent ÷ 600 m·h⁻¹).
- Insert scheduled short breaks every 60–90 minutes and one main meal stop 30–60 minutes.
- Record cumulative arrival times and include 60–120 minute finish margin before sunset.
Sample leg calculation (concrete): leg = 5 km + 300 m ascent; moving = (5 ÷ 5) + (300 ÷ 600) = 1.0 + 0.5 = 1.5 h; add 10 min short break → 1.67 h; schedule on timetable accordingly.
- Conversions: 1 km = 0.621 mi; 1 m = 3.281 ft. Use these to convert speeds: 5 km·h⁻¹ ≈ 3.1 mph; 600 m·h⁻¹ ≈ 1,969 ft·h⁻¹.
- GPS tracks and guidebook times often omit breaks and assume optimal footing; add 20–50% to those published values unless you know the exact conditions.
- Contingency: include at least one turnaround deadline (time when retreat must begin), an extra hour of daylight margin, and an emergency bivy plan with coordinates logged.
- Calibration: record actual moving speeds and break durations on each outing and update your personal multipliers; use average moving speed excluding breaks to plan subsequent days.
Water and Food Planning – How Much to Carry, Treat, and Refill on the Trail
Carry a baseline of 2–3 L per person for short outings; plan 3–5 L per day for typical day hikes with moderate effort; increase to 6+ L/day in hot conditions or sustained uphill effort. Every extra liter equals ~1 kg (2.2 lb) of pack weight.
Water quantities, hourly rates and weight examples
Consumption guidelines: light walking 0.5 L/hr, moderate hiking 0.75–1.0 L/hr, hard exertion or hot weather 1.0–1.5 L/hr. Daily ranges: low activity 2–3 L/day, moderate activity 3–5 L/day, high exertion or desert heat 5–8+ L/day. Example: 4-hour moderate outing at 0.8 L/hr → 3.2 L → ~3.2 kg (7 lb). Pack planning rule: calculate expected hours between reliable water sources, multiply by hourly rate, add 0.5–1.0 L contingency per person.
Carry water in at least two containers (e.g., 1 × bladder + 1 × hard bottle) to avoid single-point failure. For cold nights, quarter-fill bottles and freeze to use as ice and prevent filter damage from freezing.
Treatment methods, refill strategy and practical checks
Filtration: choose hollow-fiber or ceramic filters with pore sizes ≤0.2 µm to remove bacteria and protozoa; filters do not reliably remove viruses. Backflush daily; carry spare o-rings and a collapsible syringe for maintenance. UV devices: follow manufacturer times (typical 30–90 seconds per liter for clear water); ineffective in turbid water. Chemical disinfectants: chlorine dioxide tablets work against bacteria, protozoa and viruses when used with proper contact times (commonly 30 minutes to 4 hours depending on temperature and turbidity). Boiling: rolling boil 1 minute at sea level; at elevations above ~2,000 m (6,562 ft) boil 3 minutes.
Water-source rules: prefer flowing spring/stream water over stagnant pools; avoid water downstream of livestock, mining runoff or human activity. If water is turbid, prefilter with a bandana or let settle before treating. Plan refill points using topo maps and recent local reports; assume seasonal dry spells–if source reliability is unknown, plan to carry water for the longest gap shown on maps plus one extra refill buffer (0.5–1 day supply).
Electrolytes and hydration monitoring: add 200–500 mg sodium per liter during normal sweat; increase to ~300–700 mg/L during heavy sweating. Consume 200–350 kcal per hour for light–moderate effort, 300–500 kcal/hr during sustained hard effort; aim for small, frequent snacks rather than large meals. Emergency reserve: carry an extra 500–1,000 kcal and an additional 0.5–1.0 L water per person.
Food weight and selection: calorie-dense items average 400–600 kcal per 100 g. Examples: nuts ~600 kcal/100 g, peanut butter ~588 kcal/100 g, energy bars ~200–300 kcal per 60 g, dehydrated dinners ~400–900 kcal per pouch (120–180 g). To supply 3,500 kcal/day using dense items, expect to carry roughly 600–900 g of food; lighter items and more carbs increase weight. Pack food in resealable waterproof pouches, distribute weight across the pack, and keep quick-access snacks on shoulder straps for hourly fueling.
Redundancy: carry at least two treatment options (e.g., filter + chemical tablets or filter + UV pen), one spare water container, and a small repair kit. Log planned refill points and expected lapses in water availability before leaving the trailhead.
Navigation Skills: Using Map, Compass, and Phone GPS Without Losing Bearings
Carry a paper topographic map plus a quality magnetic compass; set local magnetic declination before leaving base.
Orient map to terrain by aligning map grid north with magnetic north via compass; apply local declination when converting bearings: subtract easterly declination, add westerly (mnemonic: East is least, West is best). Example: declination 12°E, compass bearing 070° → grid bearing 058°.
Take a bearing precisely: point the direction-of-travel arrow at the chosen landmark, rotate the bezel until the orienting arrow aligns with the needle, then read the bearing at the index. To follow that bearing, pick an intermediate visible landmark on the same azimuth and walk to it, repeat.
Fix position by resection: sight bearings to two or three prominent, mapped features, draw back-bearing lines on the map; intersection equals your location. Use a third bearing as a check; if lines fail to cross, convert them into thin bearing bands and use the overlap area.
Know map scale and contour interval. 1:25,000 → 1 cm = 250 m (4 cm = 1 km). 1:50,000 → 1 cm = 500 m (2 cm = 1 km). Contour intervals commonly 5–20 m; assess slope by contour spacing and identify saddles, ridges, and cliffs by shape and contour pattern.
Calibrate pace count on a measured 100 m section on similar ground before departure. Record double-step count per 100 m and walking speed (km/h). Use pace count plus timing to estimate distance between features when trail markers are absent.
Phone GPS setup: download offline topographic tiles and caches, set app coordinate display to UTM or MGRS when using grid maps, enable high-accuracy GPS, and start track logging. Treat reported horizontal accuracy numerically; discard position fixes with >10–20 m error when a precise fix is required.
Cross-check phone coordinates with the paper map: convert decimal degrees to UTM/MGRS if needed, then plot the point. Never rely solely on electronic position; battery loss, cold, moisture, or multipath errors can produce misleading locations.
Manage battery and interference: carry an external battery ≥10,000 mAh, dim the screen, disable background sync, and use airplane mode except when verifying position. Keep the compass clear of phones, metal water bottles, and powered electronics to avoid magnetic distortion.
Practice these skills on easy routes near roads until pace counts, resection, bearing-taking, and bearing-following become routine. Simulate GPS failure and navigate using only map and compass, then verify results with the phone to build confidence in manual methods.
Authoritative reference: REI – How to use a map and compass